MRI Articel

MRI an Inexpensive Way to Predict Alzheimer’s Disease


The brain’s capacity for information is an effective predictor of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and can be tested inexpensively and easily with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), according to scientists.

“We have developed a low-cost behavioral assessment that can clue someone in to Alzheimer’s disease at its earliest stage,” said Dr. Michael Wenger, associate professor of psychology, Pennsylvania State University (Penn State; University Park, USA). “By examining [information] processing capacity, we can detect changes in the progression of mild cognitive impairment [MCI].”

MCI is a condition that affects language, memory, and related mental functions. It is distinct from the ordinary mental degradation associated with aging and is a probable precursor to the more serious AD. Both MCI and Alzheimer’s are tied to a steady decline in the volume of the hippocampus, the region of the brain responsible for long-term memory and spatial reasoning.

MRI scans are the most effective and direct way to detect hippocampal atrophy and diagnose MCI. But for many, the procedure is unavailable or too costly. “MRIs can cost hundreds of dollars an hour,” Dr. Wenger said. “We created a much cheaper alternative, based on a memory test, that correlates with hippocampal degradation.” Dr. Wenger and his collaborators at the Mayo Clinic College of Medicine (Rochester, MN, USA) detailed their findings in the February 2010 issue of the Journal of Mathematical Psychology.

From a computer model of an atrophying hippocampus, the researchers determined how to estimate capacity with a statistical measure of how quickly tasks are completed. Applying this analysis to a memory test for people with MCI, the researchers were able to gauge their hippocampal capacity and compare it to the progression of their ailment. “My collaborators at the Mayo Clinic backed up this study with MRIs for the MCI group,” Dr. Wenger said. “These capacity measures we developed showed a reliable relationship to the hippocampal volume measurements, so we know we are on the right track.”

The scientists began by modeling the hippocampus as a complex electrical circuit. Equations governing electric current and voltage mimicked the electrical firing of neurons within the circuit. The researchers turned off neurons in the simulation to model atrophy of the hippocampus.

With fewer cells available to process electrical signals, the model hippocampus slowed down, but its capacity for processing information decreased at an even faster rate. Capacity was the most sensitive measure of how the hippocampus was deteriorating, more than the average processing speed. “We then applied this to the gold standard of the field--the Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test [FCSRT],” Dr. Wenger said. “This is a test that can discriminate between normal age-related memory changes and changes caused by impairment.”

The researchers gave this test to five groups of participants: college students, healthy middle-aged adults, healthy elderly individuals, people with diagnosed cases of MCI, and a control group of age-matched individuals without MCI. The first three groups each had 100 members and the last two each had 50.

During the FCSRT, the researchers showed the participants descriptive words, such as “part of the body” and “artery,” and asked the participants to choose the picture that fit these cues from a set of 24 images, in this case, an image of a heart. The psychologists then asked the subjects to recall as many items as they could. For objects they failed to remember, the psychologists provided the category cues, providing more information and testing the limits of the participants’ capacity.

The researchers analyzed the response times for the tasks and the number of items that were recalled, with and without additional cues. The MCI group demonstrated the greatest sensitivity to added cues--the additional input either considerably helped or inhibited their performance. But like the computer model, estimates of capacity highlighted the greatest cognitive difference between the MCI group and the others.

This study’s approach to defining processing capacity is atypical. The scientists combined disparate principles of engineering and statistics, mathematically translating processing capacity into what is called the “hazard function.”

The hazard function is well known in engineering, but comparatively new for fields such as psychology. It gives the probability that a task that is not yet completed will be completed in the next interval of time. By measuring how long it takes a participant to recall the objects during the FCSRT, the psychologists fit a model based on the hazard function to each participant and obtain a measure of his or her capacity for the memorization task.

The difference in hazard function measures between the MCI group and all other groups was statistically much more pronounced than the differences between all groups in the number of items they recalled. These hazard function differences also outweighed the contrasts between all groups in their response times. The hazard function model proved to be the most sensitive diagnostic for cognitive distinctions in the groups, making it an effective indicator of capacity and a better signal of the underlying hippocampal atrophy than processing speed alone.

The researchers’ results are valid for every person, not just for the whole group. Since the modified FCSRT relies on personal reaction times, hazard analysis, and performance, it can track the progression of MCI for anyone, anywhere there is access to a computer. “These results are still preliminary, but very encouraging,” Dr. Wenger concluded. “We plan to study what this approach can tell us about mental impairments related to other conditions, like iron deficiencies, in the future.”

Biomedical technology

Biomedical technology involves the application of engineering and technology principles to the domain of living or biological system Usually biomedical denotes a greater stress on problems related to human health and diseases. Bio medical engineering combined with Bio technology is often called Biomedical Technology or Bio engineering. It has two wings: Biomedical Engineering (dealing more with the Biophysics and Biotechnology (dealing more with the Biochemistry

Biomedical technology involves: § Biomedical science § Biomedical informatics § Biomedical research § Biomedical engineering § Bioengineering § Biotechnology Biomedical technologies: Cloning Therapeutic cloning

Biomedical scientist

The general motivation may be stated as: "to increase the body of scientific knowledge on topics related to medicine."Biomedical scientists study disease, drugs, and other topics related to human health. Their role is to develop or improve treatments, vaccines, equipment, and techniques involving health care.A biomedical scientist (or biomedical doctor, biomedician, medical scientist), is a scientist educated in the field of biological science, especially in the context of medicine. Biomedicians are typically active inbiomedical research in fields such as Anatomy, Pathology, Physiology, Pharmacology,Microbiology and traditionally tend to have more limited contact with patients. The recent trend is that these scientists work closely with engineers and technologists to find innovative ways to cure diseases by developing advanced diagnostic tools and treatment methodologies where physicians play a pivotal role.

Biomedical sciences must not be confused with Pathology and microbiology.

Biomedical scientists tend to focus more on complex medical science and research over treatment techniques and day-to-day medicine as their more patient-oriented physician counterparts.

Professionals educated in fields other than medicine might also contribute to medical overall knowledge. Examples include biological scientists such as molecular biologists.

Contents 1 Description 2 Education 2.1 United Kingdom 3 Areas of specialization 4 Salaries and work conditions 5 Job growth 6 Status worldwide 6.1 The United Kingdom

Description

Medical scientist assessing the health status of transgenic mice in a British laboratory, 2000

Biomedical scientists study aspects of living organisms, such as reproduction, growth, and development to develop treatments, prevent disease, and promote health.Their research can investigate health (basic) or investigate how to prevent disorders (applied). Scientists may use human volunteers or models. Workplaces includeinstitutes, hospitals or industries, laboratory-based.

People in this field may:

• experiment and interpret medical results
• keep records of data and use computers to analyze them
• teach and supervise students
• apply for grants
• collaborate with others in the same field
• consider potential of research products
• share results with colleagues
• give presentations at conferences
• write papers for publication
• keep up to date via the Internet and scientific meetings
• implement medical diagnosis
• advise in medical treatment

Education

Biomedical education programs (sometimes known as Medical Scientist Training Program) are given at most medical faculties around the world, usually with the aim to create professionals with future leading positions in medical research and development.^{[citation needed]}

The education has a clear focus on human biology and basic science and how this knowledge can be transferred into a medical and clinical setting.

United Kingdom

The programs usually encompass an initial bachelors degree, which is presupposed for two years of further studies eventually earning the students a medicine master's examina (that might however differ in extent and depth between different countries and/or faculties). Nevertheless many students choose to study on (for as much as) another 4 years to earn the higher Ph.D/Doctor's degree, at this time the students specialize in a certain medical area such as, for example, nephrology, neurology, oncology or virology (by now the student has passed a maximum 9 years of higher learning).

In the UK specifically, prospective undergraduate students wishing to undertake a BSc in biomedical sciences are required to apply via the UCAS application system (usually during the final year of college or sixth form secondary school). Although many students are genuinely interested in applying for such a course, a large proportion of places offered on biomedical sciences courses around the country are made available to those applicants who are unsuccessful in applying for Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery courses. As a result, those who are unable to gain admittance into undergraduate medicine courses, often re-apply as post-graduates upon completion of their three year BSc degree. However, entry into medicine as a graduate student is incredibly competitive and is heavily dependent upon the attainment of exceptional grades and a 1st class or 2:1 degree in biomedical sciences.

A PhD in Biomedicine is however required for most higher research and teaching positions, which most colleges and universities offer. These graduate degree programs may include classroom and fieldwork, research at a laboratory, and a dissertation.Although a degree in a medicine or life science is common, recent research projects also need graduates in statistics, bioinformatics, physics and chemistry.Abilities preferred for entry in this field include: technical, scientific, numerical, written, and oral skills.

Students who complete a bachelor's degree can work in non-research positions such as performing, less advanced, medical tests at hospitals or assisting Biomedical doctors in their work. When in high school, students should prepare themselves for this field by taking science and health-related courses such as biology, chemistry, and mathematics.

Areas of specialization

Medical scientists can specialize, for example, in the following areas, which are explained:

• Anatomist: studies animals' organ structures and relates them to medicine
• Bacteriologist: studies bacteria
• Biochemist: studies the chemical composition of cells and the chemistry behind biological processes
• Molecular Biologist: studies the molecular makeup and processes of living organisms
• Biophysicist: studies mechanical and electrical energy in living cells and tissues
• Cell biologist: studies cell-level organization and processes
• Embryologist: investigates infertility
• Epidemiologist: studies causes and spread of and how to prevent diseases
• Geneticist: studies traits of humans and animals
• Hematologist: studies of the blood, such as blood cells, and mechanisms of coagulation. (See hematology). May also be involved in Blood transfusion.
• Histopathologist: studies how disease affects tissues
• Immunologist: studies the immune system
• Microbiologist: studies characteristics of microorganisms
• Neuroscientist: studies on function and structure the nervous system, including brain
• Parasitologist: studies parasites
• Pharmacologist: studies effects of drugs on biological systems
• Virologist: studies viruses and viral diseases
• Nephrologist: studies and treats disease of the kidney
• Oncologist: studies and treats the complications of cancer.
• Pathologist: studies and diagnoses disease through examination of organs, tissues, cells and bodily fluids.
• Rheumatologist: the diagnosis and therapy of rheumatic diseases.

Salaries and work conditions

Biomedical scientists are employed by federal and state governments, are consultants for chemical and pharmaceutical business firms, or work in laboratories where they perform tests and experiment. In theUnited States, the average salary for research scientists is $86,393.^{[citation needed]} In the United Kingdom, they are paid anywhere from £20,000 to £60,000, depending on experience, education, and position.

Laboratory experiments often include toxic or radioactive materials and dangerous organisms. Safety procedures must be followed to avoid contamination. Ethical issues are brought up when research scientists work with animals and animal products, like stem cells.

Job growth

Job growth[citation needed]
10-year job growth	17.05%
Total jobs (2004)	29,442
Forecast (2014)	34,461
Average annual growth	1,424

Status worldwide

The United Kingdom

Biomedical scientist is the protected title used by professionals working within the pathology department of a hospital. The biomedical sciences are made up of the following disciplines; biochemistry,haematology, immunology, microbiology, histology, cytology, bacteriology and transfusion services. These professions are regulated within the United Kingdom by the Health professions council. Anyone who falsely claims to be a biomedical scientist commits an offence and could be fined up to £5000.

Each department specialises in aiding the diagnosis and treatment of disease. Entry to the profession requires an Institute of Biomedical Science (IBMS) accredited BSc honours degree followed by a minimum of 12 months laboratory training in one of the pathology disciplines, however the actual time spent training can be considerably longer. Trainees are also required to complete a certificate of competence training portfolio, this requires gathering extensive amounts of evidence to demonstrate professional competence. At the end of this period the trainees portfolio and overall competence are assessed if successful state registration is achieved. State registration indicates that the applicant has reached a required standard of education and will follow the guidelines and codes of practice created by the health professions council.More recently a co-terminus degree has been implemented to bring the profession in to line with the other professions allied to health care. Students now participate in a placement year,which lasts 15 weeks, in either the second or third years of their degree. Students are then awarded their state registration on completion of their degree. Placements are not guaranteed and places are limited to the top students, those who do not get placements can follow the old style of registration but are at a serious disadvantage when applying for posts.

Biomedical scientists are the second largest profession registered by the Health Professions Council and make up a vital component of the health care team. Many of the decisions doctors make are based on the test results generated by biomedical scientists. Despite this, much of the general public are unaware of biomedical scientists and the important role they play. This lack of awareness extends to many doctors and nurses; often biomedical scientists are incorrectly referred to as laboratory technicians.

Biomedical scientists are not exclusively confined to NHS laboratories. Biomedical scientists along with scientists in other inter-related medical disciplines seek out to understand human anatomy, physiology and behaviour at all levels. This is sometimes achieved through the use of model systems that are homologous to various aspects of human biology. The research that is carried out either in Universities or Pharmaceutical companies by biomedical scientists has led to the development of new treatments for a wide range of degenerative and genetic disorders. Stem cell biology, cloning, genetic screening/therapies and other areas of biomedical science have all been generated by the work of biomedical scientists from around the world.